Jet streams may start, stop, split into two or more parts, combine into one stream, or flow in. Winds are steady and free of turbulence, and some birds can fly at stratosphere altitude. People, plants, and animals living under the ozone hole are harmed by the solar radiation now reaching the Earth's surface—where it causes health problems, from eye damage to skin cancer. Introduction. Temperature increases with ozone concentration. STE is separated into three. Winds are steady and free of turbulence, and some birds can fly at stratosphere altitude. Thermosphere . Temperature rises within the stratosphere but still remains well below freezing. “The temperatures, UV and dryness are similar to Mars, so it’s a great proxy,” says Shiladitya DasSarma. stratosphereparts. The stratosphere is a second layer of Earth that exists above the troposphere. Stratosphere And Upper Troposphere: Missions and Projects. The troposphere is. The solar constant is measured at. Is the stratosphere, the atmospheric layer between about 10 and 50 km, important for predicting changes in weather and climate? The traditional view is that the stratosphere is a passive recipient of energy and waves from weather systems in the underlying troposphere, but recent evidence suggests otherwise. 1 pt. The stratosphere is an atmospheric layer composed of stratified temperature layers, with the warm layers of air high in the sky and the cool layers of air in the low sky, close to the planetary. Abstract. When Mount Pinatubo erupted in the Philippines in 1991, it blasted 20 million tons of SO 2 into the stratosphere, creating an “aerosol parasol” that cooled the planet by about 0. Stratosphere-Troposphere Exchange: A Review 1. This is a revised version of Stratospheric Cooling and Tropospheric Warming posted on December 1, 2010. One of the key questions in the air quality and climate sciences is how tropospheric ozone concentrations will change in the future. Stohl et al. Multiple Choice. Temperature decreases with height. The stratosphere the atmosphere's second layer, and is located right above the troposphere and right below the mesosphere. The troposphere is where clouds form and weather takes place, but conditions in the stratosphere can influence the weather below. Earth's stratosphere — an atmospheric layer that starts 7. Stratospheric ozone intrusion plays an important role in affecting the tropospheric ozone concentrations in the troposphere through stratosphere to troposphere transport (STT). Let’s examine the troposphere in a bit more detail. Ozone productionmainly takes place in the tropical stratosphere as the direct solar radiation photodissociates oxygenmolecules (O 2) into oxygen atoms (O), which quickly react with other O 2 molecules to form ozone (O 3). the stratosphere. The layer made of layers. Radiosondes play a vital role in the validation of space-based observations of our atmosphere. This diagram shows some of the features of the stratosphere. Ozone molecules in this layer absorb high-energy ultraviolet (UV) light from the Sun, converting the UV energy into heat. On all planets with an atmosphere, but especially the Earth (our usual point of reference), the stratopause is the boundary between the stratosphere and the mesosphere. 0. The atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1034 gm per square centimeter. Thanksgiving NFL games winners and losers: 49ers and Cowboys impress, Lions not so much. stratosphere The atmospheric layer above the troposphere, which extends on average from about 10 to 50 km above the Earth's surface. Thus, the transport can be. Diagram showing the five primary layers of the Earth's atmosphere: exosphere, thermosphere, mesosphere, stratosphere, and troposphere. This wave phase shift indicates. Haynes 2 and Michael E. Our results indicate that there is large case-to. Meteors burn up in this layer Thermosphere. The distance from the planetary surface to the edge of the stratosphere is ±50 km, less than 1. Ozone is a gas made up of three oxygen atoms (O 3 ). The stratosphere layer is called the ozonic atmospheric envelope because it contains most of the ozone gas (O 3) which is found in the atmospheric envelope. This layer has the air we breathe and the clouds in the sky. Stratospheric ozone intrusion plays an important role in affecting the tropospheric ozone concentrations in the troposphere through stratosphere to troposphere transport (STT). Abstract. It also contains most of the atmosphere’s ozone, triplet molecules made from three oxygen atoms. Abstract The stratosphere contains ~17% of Earth’s atmospheric mass, but its existence was unknown until 1902. Rood 3 Leonhard Pfister 4 Abstract. It’s thinnest at the North and South Pole. 7). The troposphere is between 5 and 9 miles (8 and 14 kilometers) thick depending on where you are on Earth. This layer is where the ozone layer exists and scientists send weather balloons. It starts at the tropopause at an average of 10 km above Earth’s surface and goes up to about 50 km above the surface. The stratosphere is the second layer of the atmosphere (above the troposphere. The mesosphere is directly above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. The troposphere and the stratosphere are separated by a boundary called the tropopause, whose altitude varies from about 16 km in the tropics to about 8 km near the poles. Let’s dive deep and learn a few things about each layer. The stratosphere is extremely dry and has very little water vapor in the air. Over recent years there have been concomitant advances in the development of stratosphere-resolving numerical models, our understanding of stratosphere–troposphere interaction, and the extension of long-range forecasts to explicitly include the stratosphere. The stratosphere is the second of five layers in the atmosphere. Holton • Peter H. In contrast to the climatological seasonal cycle, SFW events noticeably. The stratosphere contains the ozone layer (O3). The stratosphere, the layer of the atmosphere at heights between 10-50 km, is an important source of variability for the weather and climate at the Earth’s surface on timescales of weeks to decades. TL;DR Stratosphere Vs. The stratosphere is the layer of the Earth’s atmosphere located above the troposphere, extending from about 10 to 50 kilometers above the surface. Effect on Temperature. This approach places stratosphere-troposphere exchange in the framework of the general circulation and helps to clarify the roles of the different mechanisms involved and the interplay between large and small scales. Abstract. Introduction. This layer extends from about 50 to 85 km above our planet’s earth. Here we aim to identify robust changes in STT using simulations from the Chemistry Climate Model Initiative (CCMI) under a. This study aims to investigate the Stratosphere-Troposphere Exchange (STE) events and ozone changes over Irene (25. This means we need high ozone. Solomon, R. Several radars specifically designed for tropospheric studies were quickly developed,. Earth is a great planet to live on because it has a wonderful atmosphere around it. Special attention is given to the. It is also the second-tallest observation tower in the Western Hemisphere, surpassed only by the CN Tower in Toronto, Ontario. However, the pressure decreases to one millibar, i. 7) yields as. NASA uses these airplanes to study the health of the stratosphere and the ozone layer and the impacts. The layers of the atmosphere are basically divided on the basis of temperature variation with altitude. From the top of the troposphere to about 50 kilometres (31 miles) above the ground, the. 1. ) The highest temperatures in the atmosphere occur in the _____ because _____. So. In the table below are zonal mean time series of Temperature, Zonal Wind Component, Normalized Geopotential Height anomalies, amplitude of the height field's Wave 1, Wave 2, and Wave 3. Phone: 1-866-983-4279. Assmann was a member of the Society for the Promotion of Aeronautics. The Stratosphere reached profitability in the early 2000s, but while other, higher-end hotels regularly renovated their rooms, Stratosphere remained musty and. In the stratosphere, ozone molecules play an important role - absorbing ultraviolet radiation from the Sun and shielding Earth from dangerous rays. In the lower stratosphere the temperature is constant and the pressure decreases exponentially. 1209. , 2002). The stratosphere and the mesosphere are known as the middle atmospheres. Stratosphere–troposphere exchange (STE) has important impacts on the chemical and radiative properties of the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere. Take a ride to the top of the Tower, at 1,149-foot tall, it is the tallest freestanding observation tower in the United States, where you. A new dynamical metric of troposphere-stratosphere coupling is established based on extreme stratospheric planetary-scale wave heat flux events, defined as the 10th and 90th percentiles of the daily high-latitude averaged heat flux distribution at 50 hPa using European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Re-Analysis (ERA)-Interim. Between about 85 km and 600 km lies the thermosphere. It extends above the tropopause to an altitude of about 30 miles (50 km) above the planet's surface. 5 mi; 39,000 ft) above Earth's surface to the stratopause at an altitude of about 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 164,000 to 180,000 ft). Because of the lower stratosphere's generally calmer air than the troposphere, commercial passenger aircraft will travel there. The atmosphere is divided into five layers. Because this layer is much closer to the sun, it can reach temperatures up to 2,000 °C (3,600 °F)Engineers apply the knowledge of math & science to design and manufacture maintainable systems used to solve specific problems. Let m'T and m'S represent the total masses of air in thetroposphere and the stratosphere, respectively. 1 percent other gases. The stratosphere is found above the tropopause and extends up to a height of 50 km. 3. It extends from the Earth’s surface up to an. 2015); the stratospheric concentrations of radiatively active gases such as ozone and water. Since 1 meter is about 3 feet, 10 km is about 30,000 feet. 1 pt. In addition, SPARC has an identifiable role to play in better understanding the emissions of the gases controlled under the Montreal Protocol. About the Author. The new research shows that from 1986 to 2022, the human-produced greenhouse gases that caused warming of the Earth’s surface and the troposphere also led to a mean cooling of about 1. Also, the. Large-scale circulation in the troposphere is primarily driven by the differential absorption of. The troposphere is the atmosphere's lowest level. This "wave activity" paddle causes the air to move poleward in the stratosphere, which causes the rising in the tropics, and the sinking in the polar region. Propeller aircrafts and conventional aviation fly in the troposphere for air traffic. 1° E). La stratosphère est la couche de l'atmosphère terrestre située entre la troposphère et la mésosphère. , Zachariasse et. Holger Vömel, Bruce Ingleby, in Field Measurements for Passive Environmental Remote Sensing, 2023. [2] [3] The stratosphere is an atmospheric layer composed of stratified temperature layers, with the warm layers of air high in the sky and the cool layers of air in the low sky. Photolysis of O 3 is the primary source of the hydroxyl radical (OḢ) in the troposphere. If a freed atom collides with another O2, it joins up. Stratosphere. The STRAT Hotel, Casino & Tower. Jets fly in the lower stratosphere to avoid turbulence in the troposphere. The troposphere and stratosphere are layers of Earth's atmosphere with distinct characteristics. Just like the troposphere, its depth varies with latitude. Dynamics of the troposphere and stratosphere are fundamentally inseparable. Abstract The life cycle of Northern Hemisphere downward wave coupling between the stratosphere and troposphere via wave reflection is analyzed. The stratosphere is located below the mesosphere and above the troposphere. The stratosphere has long been a challenging environment for aviation. 2 The Absorption Cross Section 210 5. From low to high altitude, they are as follows: Troposphere. The results show a robust cooling of the stratosphere of about 1–3 K, and a robust warming of the troposphere of about 0. Basic Stratosphere Characteristics. 73 - . The stratosphere contains most of the ozone of our atmosphere; it is concentrated between 65,000 and 100,000 feet. Unlike the mesosphere, the gases in this layer readily absorb incoming high-energy ultraviolet and x-ray radiation from the sun. The high temperatures in the thermosphere occur because. C). The stratosphere is the 20-to-60-kilometer atmospheric layer surrounding the earth above the troposphere, the layer that extends from the surface to approximately 20 kilometers. The ozone layer is an absorbing agent that protects life on Earth. For example: ozone produced in the stratosphere can, when transported into the troposphere, have an important effect on tropospheric chemistry and air quality (e. This study investigates changes in STE of ozone concentrations for 1960–2099 using multiple climate model simulations from the Chemistry Climate Model Initiative under the RCP6. Temperatures climb sharply in the lower thermosphere (below 200 to 300 km altitude), then level off and hold fairly steady. 2. The 2 parts of the thermosphere are the ionosphere and the exosphere. About the Author. Using the Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model 6, changes in the air mass and ozone STEs in the Last. There, wave-induced forces drive a kind of global. A band of subtropical stratocumulus clouds as seen from space. 1 First-Order Reactions 2111. The temperature here is nearly constant, and hence, it is called the tropopause. Multiple Choice. io first when starting to seriously consider a stock. Report. So to maintain energy balance the stratosphere must be losing energy via long wavelength radiation which means long wavelength emitters like CO2 must be radiating more than they are absorbing. None smaller than 6-foot-1 Gary Payton II, who. Although variations in altitude exist,. Unlike the troposphere below and the mesosphere above, the stratosphere has a positive temperature gradient: temperature increases with height. Free University Berlin - Stratospheric Research Group. The lower portion of the stratosphere. 8 K over the last four decades (1979–2018). C2-Atmosphere UPSC IAS-Troposphere,stratosphere,ozone,ionosphere,etc. Stratosphere-troposphere exchange (STE) is an important term. It has long been known that. The stratosphere can affect the troposphere and surface through various chemical, radiative, and dynamical processes. It’s a very active part of the atmosphere, and it grows and shrinks depending on the energy it absorbs from the sun. On the other hand, the troposphere has high concentrations of water vapor, is low in ozone, and. Before its depletion, the ozone layer typically absorbed 97 to 99% of incoming UV-B radiation. Abstract Using monthly mean data, daily data, and theoretical arguments, relationships between surface pressure variations associated with the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), tropopause height, and the strength of the stratospheric vortex are established. What is the Stratopause. The middle layer. Role of the stratosphere Abstract. 1. The Imperial units curve fits for the lower stratosphere are: T = -70 p = 473. Apr 28, 2023. The intervening region has characteristics intermediate between the troposphere and stratosphere, and is termed the tropical transition layer (TTL). In the past, studies of stratosphere-tropo- sphere exchange of mass and chemical species have mainly emphasized the synoptic- and small-scale mechanisms of exchange. In the past, the exchange of air and trace substances between stratosphere and troposphere has been investigated intensively (see Holton et al. College Park, Maryland 20740. The troposphere is the lowest layer where weather occurs, and it contains most of the Earth's air mass. , 2005; Thompson et al. It helps make life possible by providing us with air to breathe, shielding us from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation coming from the Sun, trapping heat to warm the planet, and preventing extreme temperature differences. The tower offers multiple observation decks that provide stunning. Introduction [2] Quantifying the exchange of ozone (O 3) and water vapor between the stratosphere and the troposphere is important due to their key roles as greenhouse gases and chemical active species in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere (UT/LS). The stratosphere is the second layer of Earth's atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure is the most important climatic element. 5. The exosphere ( Ancient Greek: ἔξω éxō "outside, external, beyond. Nevertheless, there are very limited studies on the quantification of the effect. Visible throughout the city, dominating the Las Vegas skyline - the iconic STRAT Hotel, Casino & Tower is where the Las Vegas Strip begins and ends. It’s characterized by a highly stable temperature gradient that cools from top to bottom. It has not been widely applied to seasonal predictability in other seasons. The variability and trend of ozone (O3) in the Upper troposphere and Lower Stratosphere (UTLS) over the Asian region needs to be accurately quantified. e. 2 from the stratosphere by converting it to nitric acid in PSC particles, which then are lost by sedimentation. Stratosphere. Night Ranger has earned widespread recognition that includes both multi-platinum and gold album status all while leaving their indelible mark. Stratosphere-troposphere exchange (STE) of ozone is an important source of tropospheric ozone and can impact the tropospheric air quality. Changes in the stratospheric polar vortex (SPV) can remarkably impact tropospheric circulation. You're eligible for a Genius discount at The STRAT Hotel, Casino & Tower! To save at this property, all you have to. It lies above the troposphere and is separated from it by the tropopause . The NCEP GDAS and CPC temperature and height analyses are used to monitor processes in the Stratosphere and Troposphere. So while the Brewer-Dobson circulation cell is created due to mass continuity requirements, ultimately,Cloudscape and stratosphere from above at 30000 feet. Laboratory and epidemiological studies demonstrate that UVB causes non-melanoma skin cancer and plays a major role in malignant melanoma development. 2013; Solomon et al. The stratosphere is located above the troposphere, i. g. Located more than 800 feet above Las Vegas at The STRAT Hotel, Casino & Tower, the award-winning Top of the World offers a dining experience like no other. 5830 University Research Court. low pressure), ultraviolet-drenched environment, which is why it serves as an apt analog to life on other worlds with similar conditions. Websites, Branding and Marketing to help your business grow and succeed online. According to NIWA, most of the ozone. The top of the mesosphere is the coldest part of Earth's. Above the troposphere is the stratosphere, which extends to about 31 miles (50 km) above the Earth's surface. troposphere. The latter includes Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS) for ozone, MLS. (n. See moreWhat is the stratosphere? The stratosphere is a layer of Earth’s atmosphere. Evolution of the coupling in future. Stratosphere is the 2nd layer. There is little mixing between the stratosphere, the layer above the troposphere, and the troposphere below it. The heat that won't keep you warm. While the height of the tropopause varies – it’s higher over the equator than over the poles, and higher in summer than winter – the stratosphere roughly stretches between about 6 miles to 30 miles above sea level in the middle latitudes. Jet streams are fast flowing, narrow, meandering air currents in the atmospheres of the Earth, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. The Strat Hotel & Casino & Tower (formerly the Stratosphere) is a hotel and casino located in Las Vegas, Nevada, United States. It is simply the perfect layer to fly in for a number of reasons. The density of the atmosphere decreases outward, because the planet’s gravitational attraction, which pulls the gases and aerosols inward, is greatest close to the surface. Edit. These advances are now allowing for new and improved. B) Most ultraviolet light is absorbed by the stratosphere. 3. Mcintyre 2 Anne R. Free University Berlin - Stratospheric Research Group. g. The temperature variation in the stratosphere is very important in the global climate system. Because of the lower stratosphere's generally calmer air than the troposphere, commercial passenger aircraft will travel there. 2012), resulting in positive PV. The tropopause is shown by the thick line. Stratosphere Forecast. The thermosphere lies between the exosphere and the mesosphere. The atmosphere consists of thin layers of gases. The meaning of STRATOSPHERE is the part of the earth's atmosphere which extends from the top of the troposphere to about 30 miles (50 kilometers) above the surface and in which temperature increases gradually to about 32°F (0°C) and clouds rarely form. Ozone is naturally produced in the stratosphere in a two-step process. Ozone. The next higher layer above the stratosphere is the mesosphere. Stratosphere-troposphere exchange (STE) of ozone represents a significant source term in the tropospheric ozone budget and can impact surface ozone concentrations, tropospheric oxidation capacity, and methane lifetime. The air temperature at the tropopause is about minus 80 0C over the equator and about minus 45oC over the poles. . Studies in recent years have found convincing evidence that the monsoon has significant impact on stratosphere troposphere exchange (STE) [e. The mesosphere is directly above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. Modifications of STE in a changing climate may affect stratospheric ozone depletion and the oxidizing capacity of the troposphere significantly. Air masses can extend thousands of kilometers across the surface of Earth, and can reach from ground level to the stratosphere —16 kilometers (10 miles) into the atmosphere. The stratosphere is the second layer, as one moves upward from Earth's surface, of the atmosphere. The stratosphere is a layer of Earth's atmosphere. Consistent results are found between the satellite-based layer-average temperatures and vertically resolved radiosonde records. 4. Because stratospheric processes have longer memory. g. g. Ozone is produced naturally in the stratosphere when highly energetic solar radiation breaks down molecules of oxygen - O2 - and cause the two oxygen atoms to split apart in a process called photolysis. The air pressure in the stratosphere is accordingly lower: on average, the pressure in the stratosphere is only about 10% or less of the pressure at sea level. There are negative zonal wind anomalies over the Mediterranean and Mongolia, reducing the gradients between high and low latitudes. The stratosphere's ozone layer absorbs ultraviolet radiation which is harmful to living organisms. STRATOSPHERE . This is because this is the first layer of significant air density that can cause a burn up by friction from space into the earth. Above the top of the troposphere and further up into the sky, the layer known as the stratosphere is placed. How to use stratosphere in a sentence. Clouds form in the troposphere. e. Compare More Words. n. NASA - GSFC Meteorological Plots. Chemical, radiative or dynamical coupling between troposphere and stratosphere is an important aspect of the climate system. The stratopause is the term for the stratosphere's highest point. (formerly) all of the earth's atmosphere lying outside the troposphere. It occurs naturally in small (trace) amounts in the upper atmosphere (the stratosphere). The stratosphere is located above the troposphere and below the mesosphere. The atmosphere can be divided into layers based on its temperature, as shown in the figure below. 5° S, 28. 5 Chemical Processes in the Stratosphere and Troposphere 209 5. the exosphere. In the tropical stratosphere, deep layers of eastward and westward winds encircle the globe and descend regularly from the upper stratosphere to the tropical tropopause. 000048 * h) The upper stratosphere model is used for altitudes above 82,345 feet. Chapter. The troposphere is one of five layers of the atmosphere surrounding the earth. the outer boundary of the exosphere (32,000 km (20,000 mi)). Scientists believe there may be an association between the ozone concentration and the nacreous cloud. stratosphere, where isentropic surfaces cross the tropopause, the pink region is the free troposphere, and. 37. 1. The mesosphere is the coldest region of Earth’s atmosphere, close to -100°C. At this region, clouds and other weather-related phenomenon do not take place thus is ideal for flying planes. Stratosphere Digital, Victoria, British Columbia. Mcintyre 2 Anne R. This layer separates the rest of the atmosphere from outer space. This layer has the air we breathe and the clouds in the sky. This pressure is called atmospheric pressure. This was first realized by Alan Brewer in his pioneering analysis of balloon measurements in the 1940s, where he reported that the atmospheric water content is. The stratosphere is above the troposphere and below the mesosphere. They combine to create a protective sheild that maintains our delicate energy balance essential for life on Earth. ; The troposphere is the lowest layer of the Earth’s. NOAA Center for Weather and Climate Prediction. The troposphere is bonded on the top by a layer of air called the tropopause, which separates the troposphere from the stratosphere, and on bottom by the surface of the Earth. This upwelling followed by downwelling and horizontal transport in the. With a complete cycle. This approach places stratosphere-troposphere exchange in the framework of the general circulation and helps to clarify the roles of the different mechanisms involved and the interplay between large and small scales. Weather occurs in this layer. It also contains most of the atmosphere’s ozone, triplet molecules made from three oxygen atoms. Thermosphere: It is located between about 80 and 700 kilometers above Earth’s surface, whose lowest part contains the ionosphere. The troposphere is where clouds form and weather takes place, but conditions in the stratosphere can influence the weather below. Stratosphere–troposphere exchange (STE) is an important source of tropospheric ozone, affecting all of atmospheric chemistry, climate, and air quality. 1 percent. Many of the characteristics of the 10 hPa and 850 hPa winds are. Mesosphere. Most of the mass (about 75-80%) of the atmosphere is in the troposphere. Stratosphere-troposphere coupling has been considered a significant predictability source of surface climate, primarily in winter when polar stratospheric winds are strongly westerly (Baldwin & Dunkerton, 2001; Scaife et al. The lower stratospheric ozone absorbs the harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun and protects life on the Earth. This ozone absorbs some of the incoming solar radiation, shielding life on Earth from potentially harmful ultraviolet (UV) light, and is responsible for the. Only a small amount of ozone accumulates in the troposphere because other UV photons break down ozone molecules, turning them back into oxygen. The stratosphere is the layer of the Earth 's atmosphere between the troposphere and the mesosphere. Stratosphere. Most of the members were interested in blimps, balloons, and other means of air travel, but Assmann was interested in using these technologies to study the atmosphere. The troposphere is the lowest layer of the Earth's atmosphere in direct contact with the Earth's surface (Fig. BUY TICKETS More Info. La tropopause et la stratopause séparent respectivement les couches, les deux zones de transition entre couches. 5 hours ago · SAN FRANCISCO — Five NBA players total have reached stratosphere to block 7-foot-4 Victor Wembanyama. On Earth, most weather phenomena occur in the lowest layer of the planet's atmosphere, the troposphere, just below the stratosphere. Ideally, such an index would (1) represent. New research shows that the stratosphere is nearly a quarter of a mile smaller than it was in 1980. With height, the stratosphere's air becomes warmer. Broad arrows show transport by the. Yet, the stratosphere (at altitudes of 10 to 50 km). The Earth's ozone layer ozone layerThe region of the stratosphere containing the bulk of atmospheric ozone. 2. From Earth's surface to the top of the stratosphere (50 km) is just under 1% of Earth's radius. These gases are found in atmospheric layers (troposphere, stratosphere,. The upper stratosphere bears the distinction of being the most stable region of significant mass in the Earth's atmosphere. stratosphere. An airplane flying in the stratosphere uses far less fuel than at lower altitudes thanks to the lower air density and lower temperature. . The stratosphere is the layer that contains the ozone layer and where many important interactions take place. The study of impacts needs STE fluxes to be resolved by latitude and month, and for this, we rely on global chemistry models, whose results diverge greatly. Over recent years there have been concomitant advances in the development of stratosphere-resolving numerical models, our understanding of stratosphere–troposphere interaction, and the extension of long-range forecasts to explicitly include the stratosphere.